Journal Articles
Abstract
Eye tracking technology is increasingly used to understand individuals’ non-conscious, moment-to-moment processes during video-based learning. This review evaluated 44 eye tracking studies on video-based learning conducted between 2010 and 2021. Specifically, the review sought to uncover how the utilisation of eye tracking technology has advanced understandings of the mechanisms underlying effective video-based learning and what type of caution should be exercised when interpreting the findings of these studies. Four important findings emerged from the analysis: (1) not all the studies explained the mechanisms underlying effective video-based learning through employing eye tracking technology, and few studies disentangled the complex relationship between eye tracking metrics and cognitive activities these metrics represent; (2) emotional factors potentially serve to explain the processes that facilitate video-based learning, but few studies captured learners’ emotional processes or evaluated their affective gains; (3) ecological validity should be improved for eye tracking research on video-based learning through methods such as using eye tracking systems that have high tolerance for head movements, allowing learners to take control of the pacing of the video, and communicating the learning objectives of the video to participants; and (4) boundary conditions, including personal (e.g. age, prior knowledge) and environmental factors (e.g. the topic of videos, type of knowledge), must be considered when interpreting research findings. The findings of this review inspire a number of propositions for designing and interpreting eye tracking research on video-based learning.
Citation
Deng, R., & Gao, Y. (2023). A review of eye tracking research on video-based learning. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 7671–7702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11486-7
Abstract
Videos are arguably the most important and frequently used instructional resource in massive open online courses (MOOCs). Recent research has explored learners’ perceptions and preferences regarding MOOC instructional videos. However, these studies are often limited to a small number of specific courses, and few grounded theory studies have been undertaken to investigate this topic. In the present study, a multiple-coder research methodology was adopted to analyze 4534 learner reviews of MOOCs in 14 categories. The study aimed to identify key characteristics associated with learners’ favorable perceptions of MOOC videos, types of supplemental or in-video resources learners perceive helpful to support MOOC video use, and video production features learners value. Results revealed that (a) “organized”, “detailed”, “comprehensible”, “interesting”, and “practical” were the top five important characteristics associated with learners’ favorable perceptions of MOOC videos; (b) learners perceived “presentation slides”, “reading materials”, “post-video assessments”, “embedded questions”, and “case studies” as helpful resources to support their utilization of MOOC videos; and (c) learners found “duration” a more salient production feature than “editing”, “resolution”, “subtitles”, “music”, or “voice”. The findings present implications for MOOC video design and foundations for future research avenues.
Citation
Deng, R., & Gao, Y. (2023). Using learner reviews to inform instructional video design in MOOCs. Behavioral Sciences, 13(4), 330. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13040330
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of embedded questions in pre-class instructional videos on learner perceptions (cognitive load, emotional engagement, satisfaction, judgement of learning), video engagement (total views, total viewing time), and learning performance (retention, transfer). The research occurred in a real flipped classroom environment. We designed a quasi-experiment in which 86 university students from two natural classes watched pre-class instructional videos featuring procedural knowledge with or without interpolated true or false questions. Students were asked to practice the operation steps introduced in the videos. While they practiced operations, they could either pause the videos or let the videos continue playing. Face-to-face contact time was utilised to consolidate and extend previewed content with student-centred, instructor-facilitated problem-solving activities. Results revealed no discernible effects from embedded questions in pre-class videos on cognitive load, emotional engagement, satisfaction, judgement of learning, total views, knowledge retention or knowledge transfer. We speculate that the various in-class practice activities and frequent access to procedural knowledge videos offset the cognitive benefits derived from question-embedded videos. Learners who viewed question-embedded videos presented significantly reduced total viewing time, likely because the embedded questions scaffolded them in sustaining attention and efficiently pinpointing the exact information needed. Future research should identify boundary conditions for embedding questions in instructional videos (e.g. learning mode, type of knowledge) rather than indiscriminately applying this design strategy.
Citation
Deng, R., & Gao, Y. (2023). Effects of embedded questions in pre-class videos on learner perceptions, video engagement, and learning performance in flipped classrooms. Active Learning in Higher Education, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/14697874231167098
Abstract
Video lectures in massive open online courses (MOOCs) provide an opportunity to not only deliver instructional content but also engage learners. While there are many different styles of video lectures, it is not clear how video styles affect learner engagement. This study analysed and critiqued different typologies of video styles and classified MOOC video styles on a speaker-centric to media-centric spectrum. A total of 1372 survey responses were used for data analysis. The findings indicated that the ‘media-centric’ and ‘balanced’ video styles enhanced learner engagement to varying degrees in MOOCs of different study areas. In contrast, the ‘speaker-centric’ video style offered no advantages for promoting engagement in any MOOC study area. Effect sizes ranged from .03 to .07, indicating that video styles had a small to medium effect on engagement. These findings can provide new insights into the design of video lectures for different study areas in MOOCs.
Citation
Deng, R. (2024). Effect of video styles on learner engagement in MOOCs. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 33(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2023.2246981
Abstract
Although video-based flipped learning is a widely accepted pedagogical strategy, few attempts have been made to explore the design and integration of pre-class instructional videos into in-class activities to improve the effectiveness of flipped classrooms. This study investigated whether question-embedded pre-class videos, together with the opportunity to review these questions at the beginning of in-class sessions, affected student learning processes and outcomes. Seventy university students from two naturally constituted classes participated in the quasi-experimental study. The experiment adopted a pre-test/post-test, between-subjects design and lasted for six weeks, with the same instructional content for the experimental and control groups. Students’ age, sex, pre-experiment motivation, prior knowledge, and perceived knowledge were controlled for in the study. The results indicate that the educational intervention significantly strengthened learning performance, likely due to the increased regularity of engagement with pre-class materials. The intervention did not influence student satisfaction with the pre-class videos or the video viewing duration. Overall, the findings suggest that instructors should consider embedding questions in pre-class videos and reviewing them at the beginning of in-class sessions to facilitate student learning in video-based flipped classrooms.
Citation
Deng, R., Feng, S., & Shen, S. (2023). Improving the effectiveness of video-based flipped classrooms with question-embedding. Education and Information Technologies, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12303-5
Abstract
Empirical evidence has consistently shown that interactive questions are an effective strategy for strengthening student learning through instructional videos. However, research has not directly addressed the crucial question of whether the beneficial effects of interactive questions in instructional videos are attributable to the presence of questions, or whether they result from a combination of question presence and computer-paced interactivity. This question is important for understanding the mechanisms by which interactive questions work and holds practical significance for instructors’ selection of suitable video formats for student learning. To fill this research gap, this study conducted a quasi-experiment with pre-test post-test design to determine the effects of question presence and interactivity on university students’ cognitive load, emotional engagement, video view counts, and cognitive learning outcomes. Three discrete classes were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: videos with questions (Experimental Group 1, n = 39), videos with interactive questions (Experimental Group 2, n = 35), and videos without questions (Control Group, n = 35). Age, gender, motivation, and actual and perceived prior knowledge were controlled in the experiment. The findings revealed that (a) question presence in traditional linear videos conferred beneficial effects on germane cognitive load, emotional engagement, knowledge acquisition, and knowledge application; (b) question interactivity did not offer additional advantages in reinforcing knowledge acquisition or application compared with question presence alone; and (c) question presence or interactivity exerted no significant effect on video view counts. This study has practical implications for instructors seeking to develop effective instructional videos.
Citation
Deng, R., Yang, Y., & Shen, S. (2024). Impact of question presence and interactivity in instructional videos on student learning. Education and Information Technologies, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12862-1